? INTRODUCTION
This topic looks at the effect of technology, transnationalism and migration on the
global culture. Technology is a catalyst that hastens the realisation of a global
village as coined by Marshall McLuhan in the 1960s. The rapid advancements of
the Internet and Information and Communications Technology (ICT) have sped
up the development of the social media, bringing with it a new level of
dissemination of information. Today, a global society dependent on mobile phones
and social media has arisen through the advancement of technology since the
introduction of the Internet.
Topic 10 Intercultural Communication and Globalisation
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explore the relationship between the Internet, Information and
Communications Technology (ICT) and global culture;
2. Discuss the extent to which intercultural communication is affected
by globalisation;
3. Explain the concept of cultural imperialism; and
4. Examine how labour and transnational capital are affected by culture.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Nowadays, transnational capital explores the existence of multinational
corporations that take advantage of cheaper labour costs and move their
businesses from developed countries to developing countries. This has also
resulted in trans-migration where global citizens seize opportunities of blooming
economies elsewhere in the world. London, for example, is no longer a city
comprising Caucasians, but today is filled with migrants from South Asia, East
Asia, Eastern Europe and Africa. The movements of these migrants create a new
form of global culture.
THE INTERNET, ICT AND “GLOBAL CULTURE”
The Internet has actually changed the world of communication. The world is now
made up of wired networks and connections. The majority of us are now citizens
of cyberspace, also known as netizens, this is where individuals are no longer
divided by nation states but participate in a global culture of communication
through social media for example. Today, citizens are not only united based on
geographical boundaries but may be united through sharing of common interests.
This can be seen especially where the use of social media has expanded greatly.
Social media networks such as Instagram, Twitter and Facebook have subscribers
whose numbers are bigger than the population of some nation state.
In a study by the Pew Research Centre in 2015 on teens, social media and
technology, it was found that Facebook and Instagram are the two most popular
social media platforms with 71 per cent and 52 per cent usage respectively. About
92 per cent of teenagers admit to going online on a daily basis while 24 per cent
admitted going online almost constantly. The availability of mobile smartphones
has made it easier to gain access to social media.
According to Pew Research (2015), „African-American teens are the most likely of
any group of teens to have a smartphone, with 85 per cent having access to one,
compared with 71 per cent of both white and Hispanic teens‰. Figure 10.1 shows
the findings of Pew Research Centre (2015) on the use of social media by teenagers.
Conduct an Internet search on some famous brands, for example Uniqlo
and H&M or Nike and Adidas. Try to get information whether these
products are made in the same country as where the brands originate from.
Share your findings in the online forum.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Figure 10.1: Types of social media platforms used by teenagers
Source: Pew Research Centre (2015)
The Wall Street Journal (n.d.) reported that a Gallup research survey found that in
one day Facebook users post over 4.75 billion postings, Twitter users send 400
million tweets, Instagram users „like‰ 1.2 billion photos and YouTube subscribers
watch over four million videos. About 72 per cent of adults admit using all these
media platforms and they use them a few times a day.
There is a lot of activity taking place online and people of different cultures are
able to share local content and experiences with users of other cultures. Individuals
are now sharing information across time and space. Little girls in Malaysia are
watching YouTube video clips uploaded by American girls; tweets are being
followed and shared by millions during the #prayforparis event, and so forth.
People are learning about each other's culture easily. International news can be
read almost simultaneously. This has changed the global culture.
Which social media are you most dependent on and why? Discuss in the
online forum.
ACTIVITY 10.2
Transnational capital relates to the existence of multinational corporations that
exist across the world. For example, big companies like Shell or HSBC have many
branches and operating offices around the world. Though these companies may
have a shared common value as part of their corporate goals, operationalising
them at the local level can be culturally challenging.
Today, more corporations are expanding overseas and this has led to a diverse
workforce. Local cultures need to be learnt and understood before a person
decides to take up an international position. Nowadays, many multinational
corporations offer cross cultural training for those who are posted overseas. They
need to learn, unlearn and re-learn about how to handle culturally sensitive
situations in the workplace.
For example, in a Nike factory that was newly opened in Vietnam, American staff
who had been posted in the new factory needed to understand how the
Vietnamese work, what was considered appropriate and not appropriate in that
culture, and whether they were able to take instructions well.
Some of the challenges of transnational capital or multinational corporations are
as follows:
(a) Work Values
Whether the new local culture is individualistic or collectivistic. This affects
group decision-making and the need for meetings.
(b) Language Barriers
New local culture may not be good English speakers.
(c) Quality Control
There are differences in standards of importance. Americans tend to consider
cost efficiency more while certain European countries place emphasis on
quality of product.
(d) Task versus Relationship
Different cultures have different perceptions of office relations and task
orientations. Americans focus on completing the task while some Latin
Americans tend to incorporate personal matters into the discussion.
(e) Etiquette
Some cultures accept a more aggressive and proactive behaviour while Latin
Americans and some Asian countries prefer a more courteous behaviour by
the staff.
MIGRANT LABOUR AND CULTURE
Figure 10.2: Migrant workers and labourers
Source: http://sp.beritasatu.com/media/images/original/20130816060530321.jpg
Aside from students and professional expatriates who migrate to other countries,
the labour force is also attracting an increasing number of migrants. Malaysia, for
example, is a witness to the large influx of foreign labourers from neighbouring
countries and regions (refer to Figure 10.2). For example, many Indonesian
migrants work as domestic helpers, in the cleaning service industry or even
construction. Furthermore, many Filipinos come to Malaysia to work as domestic
helpers while migrants from Nepal work in the security sector in Malaysia.
The inflow of migrant labours has led to the existence of a growing migrant
community. Certain areas in parts of the Klang Valley, for example Chow Kit, have
many Indonesian labourers living in the surrounding areas. Some areas of Bangi
and Kajang are also witnessing an increase in the number of foreign labourers.
Some employers tend to house the labourers together and may employ many
foreigners simultaneously, thus expanding the migrant community within their
settlement area.
10.3.1 Culture Shock
Oberg (as cited in Jandt, 2010) described „culture shock‰ as the feelings of
disorientation and anxiety that many people experience for a period of time while
living in a foreign country. Labour migrants undergo various stages of adaptation
when in a foreign country.
The symptoms of culture shock include depression, loneliness, loss of appetite,
falling ill or developing allergies, continuous jet lag that may lead to a lack of sleep
or excess of sleep, low self-esteem, mood swings, missing family and friends in
home country, feeling marginalised and feeling a loss of identity while trying to
adapt to a new place.
In 1960, Lysgaard described the adaptation process through the U-Curve model.
The U-Curve measures the state of mind of the individuals or the degree of
adjustment against the duration of time they are in the new host country. It is
assumed that the longer the time spent in a foreign country, the better they are able
to adapt. Figure 10.3 depicts the U-Curve model.
Figure 10.3: The U-Curve model
Source: http://www.expats2singapore.com.sg/assets/image/orientation/graph1.gif
The U-Curve model comprises four stages of adaptation. Table 10.2 describes in
further detail the four stages of the U-Curve model.
Table 10.1: Four Stages of U-Curve Model
Stage Description
Honeymoon This is the stage upon arrival in the new host country. At this stage the
migrants feels excited and very happy with the new environment. They
are similar to tourists at this point. They will be busy taking
photographs and experiencing the new culture.
Culture shock This is where disintegration begins to take place. They are now aware
that they are no longer tourists and this is their new home. They begin
to miss their home and everything associated with it: their family and
friends, the weather, the food they eat and the surroundings. They may
feel very isolated during this time and withdraw from participating in
society.
Adjustment At this stage, the migrants are beginning to accept the new changes and
begin integrating into the new life and the new environment. They are
able to find commonalities and accept the differences. They begin to
function in the new society and no longer resent their new situation.
Mastery This stage is also known as biculturalism. At this point, they have
mastered the new culture and are able to adapt independently. They
have autonomy over their life and know how to fully survive in their
new place.
CULTURAL IMPERIALISM REVISITED
Cultural imperialism is defined by Martin and Nakayama (2008) as domination
through the spread of cultural products. It is when a culture becomes strong and
dominates other cultures. Current discussions have focused on the strength of the
Western culture, specifically American culture, in dominating other cultures. It has
been described as the new age form of imperialism and colonisation. The early era
of colonisation witnessed various forms of control and dominance over other
peoplesÊ land and conquering other states. However, cultural imperialism does not
require any land acquisition. It is imperialism through the state of mind. This could
be the negative effect of globalisation. Culture imperialism occurs due to a few
factors including the following:
(a) Strength of the culture of imperialists;
(b) Lack of creativity of local culture; and
(c) Lack of control over inflow of outside culture.
10.4.1 Effects of Western Cultural Imperialism
Martin and Nakayama (2008) study how many cultural groups are worried about
the negative impact of cultural imperialism. They found that the government of
Quebec, Canada, was worried about the effects of English language media on the
French Canadian speaking communities.
In Malaysia, it is ironically difficult for Malaysian movies to gain good box office
collection when they are competing against American summer blockbusters.
Reality shows like Keeping Up with The Kardashians have provided New Age
role models such as Kim Kardashian and her sisters to a younger global
generation. Young women (though not all) are identifying with them in terms of
fashion and communication styles. Shows like American Idol have had many
international versions where less developed countries have purchased the rights
and franchise.
Hollywood has been described as the main exporter of these popular cultures. The
western way of life has been portrayed as an idealistic way of living. From
McDonalds to Coca Cola to Starbucks to Nike, these products have been sought
after by people across the world through creative advertisements by multinational
corporations. These are also symbols of modernisation.
10.4.2 Asian and Other Influences of Cultural
Imperialism
Cultural imperialism may not necessarily be just from America. These days the
spread of culture is even more extensive.
The Korean wave has hit Malaysia through popular music and drama serials.
Groups like „Big Bang‰ and „Super Junior‰ are gaining popularity worldwide
while dramas like Winter Sonata and Autumn in My Heart have opened the gates
to a global audience. The famous Korean song, Gangnam Style, has hit millions of
views on YouTube and went on to reach second place on the Billboard Hot 100
chart. It has become a big global music hit.
The Latin American wave has also shown a strong following. Singers like Shakira,
Ricky Martin and Jennifer Lopez brought the Latin fever into the global market in
the mid-1990s, while many of their telenovelas such as Mis Tres Hermanes and
Rosalinda, have been instant hits worldwide.
? The power of the Internet and social media is very strong. It has changed the
way we communicate and led to a new form of global culture.
? There are many challenges faced by multinational corporations. Various
cultural factors have to be considered.
? Individuals are no longer divided by nations but participate in a global culture
of communication through social media.
? Transnational capital relates to the existence of multinational corporations
such as Shell and HSBC.
? Challenges of transnational capital are as follows:
- Work values;
- Language barriers;
- Quality control;
- Task versus relationship; and
- Etiquette.
1. What are the stages of the U-Curve model?
2. What do you understand by cultural imperialism?
SELF-CHECK 10.1
What are popular Malaysian products that have gone global? Discuss.
ACTIVITY 10.3
? Inflow of migrant workers has led to a growing migrant community.
? Foreign labourers and other migrants go through a stage of culture shock in
the earlier stages of adaptation.
? The U-Curve model measures the state of mind of individuals or the degree of
adjustment against duration of time an individual or migrant takes to adapt to
a foreign country.
? There are four stages of the U-Curve model and these are the honeymoon,
culture shock, adjustment and mastery stage.
? Culture imperialism is when there is a domination of one culture over another
through the spread of cultural products.
? Culture imperialism occurs due to factors such as the following:
- Strength of the culture of imperialists;
- Lack of creativity of local culture; and
- Lack of control over in flow of outside culture.
Cultural Imperialism
Culture shock
Global village
Internet
Labour
Migrants
Multinational corporations
Social media
Transnational capital
U-Curve model
Jandt, F., E. (2010). An introduction to intercultural communication: Identities in a
global community. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.
Martin, J., & Nakayama, T. (2008). Experiencing intercultural communication: An
introduction (3rd ed.). Singapore: McGraw Hill.
Pew Research Centre. (2015). Teens, social media & technology overview 2015.
Retrieved from http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/04/09/teens-socialmedia
-technology-2015/
Wall Street Journal. (n.d.). The myth of social media. Retrieved from http://online.
wsj.com/public/resources/documents/sac_report_11_socialmedia_061114.pdf
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